Get help with access Institutional accessĪccess to content on Oxford Academic is often provided through institutional subscriptions and purchases. The campaign consultant Murray Chotiner used similar tactics, particularly in Richard Nixon’s campaigns for Congress. Their firm, known as Whitaker & Baxter, was highly successful, setting the standard for future political consultants and campaigns. They also helped the American Medical Association defeat President Truman’s 1948 national health-care proposal, setting the stage for future fights against health-care reform. In the 1934 governor’s race in California, their tactics led to the defeat of the Democratic candidate, Upton Sinclair. Using hardball tactics and a variety of communication tools, they helped defeat progressive candidates and causes. They were pioneers in issue advocacy, candidate elections, and ballot issues. Through the efforts of Clem Whitaker and Leone Baxter, California elections became professionalized, with public relations, media manipulation, and grassroots activities orchestrated by their firm. Modern political consulting began in California in the 1930s, with the firm of Whitaker & Baxter.
